Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experiences affect learning. They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threatening to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners motivation and performance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well. WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic 2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. . 143145; also see Cerasoli et al.. 2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). For example, a study by Walton and Spencer (2009) illustrates that under conditions that reduce psychological threat, students for whom a stereotype about their social group exists perform better than nonstereotyped students at the same level of past performance (see Figure 6-1). For example, students who have a strong academic identity and value academic achievement highly are more vulnerable to academic stereotype threat than are other students (Aronson et al., 1999; Keller, 2007; Lawrence et al., 2010; Leyens et al., 2000; Steele, 1997). Such threats can be subtly induced. One explanation for these findings is that a sense of competence emerges from identity: as players, students felt competent to calculate scoring averages and percentages, but because they did not identify as math students, they felt ill-equipped to solve the same problems in the classroom context. For example, children may adopt an academic goal as a means of pleasing parents or because they enjoy learning about a topic, or both. The influence of motivational orientations In contrast, situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Learners who focus on learning rather than performance or who have intrinsic motivation to learn tend to set goals for themselves and regard increasing their competence to be a goal.
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